songs - reflect their environment. The following collection is from the Sharqiya area of the Sultanate, where three types of environment blend together. This is a rather exceptional circumstance, and occurs because they all meet each other and so affect each other. The songs fall into the three categories: of the sea, the desert and the urban areas.

Songs of the Sea

     The following is a collection of the types of songs which reflect the tasks the sailors carry out while preparing the ship to sail, during the voyage and on their return. Each type of song has a special poetic verse which accompanies the task, and each one is set to the rhythm of the task. The songs of the sea are formed from three sources: The first is designed to be played with the drum, which is usually found on Omani trading ships; the sailors exchange beats of the drum between them as they work together.

     The second type is accompanied by clapping, in which sailors encourage the rest of their colleagues who are carrying out a particular task.
The third type relates to the movement of the oars, especially in small boats, like the "Masaashwa" and the "Sambuk".

     There are eight types of sea songs. The first is the "Shillat Al Hamool" (the song of the porters). It is performed whilst lifting goods onto the deck of the ships. lt is about the desire of the sailors for the voyage, the call to God to keep them safe during their coming voyage, and the desire for their friends and loved ones in the ports to which their voyage will take them.
The second is the "Shillat Al Naazal" (The song of the setting down). This song is performed while the goods are being lowered from the deck of the ship. Most of them are about thanking God for the safe arrival in the port, for the danger and accidents which they avoided, and the welcome they expect to find among the people of the country in which they have just arrived. If they arrive in Oman or on the coast of Africa, which was previously governed by Oman, the poetry and the song is joyous at the thought of meeting family, children and friends.

     The third is "Jarat Al Maashwa" or "Taihat Al Bahar or "Diqa Al Bahar" (Ring of the Sea) or "Jara Al Sambuk". The sailors perform this song to the rhythm of the oars of the boat which takes them from the ship, at anchor far away, to the shore. They chant to the rhythm as the oars slice through the water. Most of these song are in praise of God, thanking Him for their safe return and for calming the reging seas and the lashing storms.

     The fourth is the "Naza' Al Sharaa"' (Raising the e ils). These songs accompany the raising of the la rious sails on the ship. Each sail has its own song M hich differs from the others in speed and text the cording to which sail is being raised.
The fifth is "Saqba Al Dajul (Al Daqul)", which accompanies the raising of the raising of the ship's masts ship.


     The sixth is "Khazra Al Dajul". These songs accompany the taking down of the masts.

     The seventh "Shila Al "Amaar" are songs for the amusement and entertainment of sailors repairing ropes at night.

     The eighth is the "Shila Al Baawara" (the song of the anchor) These songs are performed by the sailors whilst they are raising the anchor. The anchor is heavy and the sailor needs to raise it with a number of tugs, so the rhythm of the "Shila Al Baawara" is , by necessity, synchronized to each pull on the chain which is fastened to the anchor of the "Shila Al Baawara" are accompanied by the clapping of the sailors who are not participating in raising the anchor, whilst the "Nahaam", or solo singer, and the sailors who are lifting it perform the song.

Al Midan

     A tradition of music and poetry which is performed for entertainment, as a competition, or as part of a medical practice. Al Midan consists of four chapters (adwar) and a zaffah.
· Prayer chapter
· Sunnah chapter
· Salam chapter
· G'abbashi chapter
· Zaffah (a) zaffah al basitah; (b) zaffat al dhibah

     Al Midan owes its name to an old tradition of ceremonies held on social occasions such as weddings and the circumcision of the children, or for  the purposes of popular medicine, or to fulfill a vow.

     When Al Midan is held on a social occasion, the ceremony usually lasts for a day, or at least for an evening. When its is held for popular medicine, it lasts three days. Three drums are played in the Al Midan the Kasir, Rahmani, and Waqif together with the Barghum.
 

The Madima

     This is a type of song for the amusement of the sailors, whether they are on the deck of the ship or on the shore. They display their skill in accordance with the principles, traditions and rules handed down for its performance. In this type of song the sailors form a circle, hitting the "Masandu" the "Kaasir" and the "Rahmaani" drums. The captain raises his voice in a song which is a mixture of Swahili and Arabic, and the group of sailors reply to him, clapping their hands in various rhythms. The song begins when the captain points at a sailor to leave the row, which he does with numerous agile jumps, then he returns to his place. The captain then points at another sailor who tries to out-do the one who preceeded him in the dance movement. And so on until the song ends.

     The dance of the "Madima" needs a great amount of skill on the part of the sailor to keep his balance, as they are performed on the wooden deck of the ship or on the sand on the shore, which buries the sailor's feet when he is jumping. The rhythm of the "Madima" has three parts. One is the "Rahmaani" drum , which is embellished by the high pitched "Kaasir" drum, and the deep tones of the African "Masandu" drum which changes the beat.The sailors are experts in the types of clapping, especially when divided into two groups. Each of them claps at different times to the other side. Then the clapping blends into a crescendo, exciting the participants, who voice their excitement with long joyful cries.
 

 "All Shawbaani"

     This is also a sailors song, which they perform for both work and amusement, when the ship stops in a port. The drum cries out in three fast, brisk rhythms and the sailors move with a splendid light swaying movement, whilst some of them work to unload the goods from the deck of the ship: goods including ivory and rare tree trunks, or ships masts, if the ships is now to make its return trip home. The song is sung by the captain, and the group of sailors reply to him, and with them are the people welcoming them, who carry flowering branches. They join the sailors in the procession and dance on the `spot of celebration' before going off in a singing, dancing march, rejoicing.

     The "Ashawbaani" is now performed by a group in a singing march beating traditional drums - the "Kaasir" and the "Rahmani" and the "Masandu". The participants are in short parallel rows and a kind of "Naghar" is blown. They carry flowering branches sing songs of welcome or congratulation on religious, folk or national occasions. They also carry flags until they arrive at the place of celebration.
 

"Al Wanna"

     This is a song of recollections which the Beduin perform individually to amuse themselves whilst riding their she camels on a long journey. Thus it was in olden times, of course !
Now, however, the singer performs it with one of his hands on his side and he closes his eyes during the song. The Beduin form a circle around him, sitting on the ground. Then another Beduin participates with another song taking up the theme, in the last verse, repeating the song of his companion.
     Most of the poetry of "Al Wanna" is love poetry and recollections, and a few are in praise of the camel. Sometimes it is called "Al Nawaha" (the professional mourner) because of its sorrowful character.
 

"Al Tashah Shah"

     This is performed by women on happy occasions, such as engagements, weddings, birth of children and other social events. It is often performed by professional groups, who are invited by the people celebrating. The guests pay them by throwing money into metal pots, which the group place mid-way between themselves and the audience.
     The singing is done by individuals; for the most part, by the leader of the group. A young man performs in some groups. The singing is, essentially, in praise of the people giving the party, and their goodness. The type of verse is in pentameters, hexameters or septameters. The singing is accompanied by clapping by the group of backing women and the drum. Either the lead singer or the men beat the "Kaasir " and the "Rahmaani" drums, whilst a young boy or girl beats a small tambourine and the "Tawus" and the "Sahaal" if it is used. It is performed in two groups, the names explain their nature - the "Waaqaf" (the standing) and the "Jaalis" (the sitting). The "Tashah Shah Al Jaalis" has no movement in it.
      The women sit facing in two rows with between them a display row, made up of the leader of the group, the old women, the two drummers, and the people with the tambourine and the "Sahaal"(Tawus). In the "Tashash Shah Al Waaqif" the women line up in two close parallel rows. Between them stands the lead singer, together with those who support her in the individual singing, the drummers and the players of the other musical instruments. One of the two rows moves towards the other in time with the rhythm. Then it returns to its place, whilst the other row then performs the same dance movement. The interaction of the two rows continues until the end of the song. The origin of this type of song is found in the desert, when the songs were those of sorrowful remembrance performed with a slow rhythm.
     Then when the song became popular in the urban areas its theme changed. Words and rhythm became faster, more suitable for amusement, evening parties and love poetry.
Men can participate in this kind of song, either by clapping whilst the women sing, or the soloist can be a man instead of a woman, especially if he is the poet who composed the song.
 

"The Hambal"

     This is the singing march which the sailors perform whilst on their way to the place where the "Razha" is performed. The name, "Hambal" indicates its moving form. It is also called "Zaamal Al Rijaal" explaining why it was created. The second rhythm is a brisk melody suitable for the spirit of the march. Two drummers beat the "Kaasir" and the "Rahmaani" drums, together with one blowing on the "Barghaam" and uttering sharp cries to excite the people accompanying them and calling to them to join the "Hambal". The two drummers at the the beginning of the "Hambal", like the rest of the participants, face the front. Then they turn to face the individuals of the march, walking backwards. The participants in the "Hambal" are in parallel rows, made up of a small number of individuals. Between each row there is quite some distance, so that each person can carry his rifle or sword. This is held slanting forwards to indicate courage and bravery.
     The "Hambal" is only for men, but if the occasion of the march allows women to participate, such as the celebration of a new birth, then they can march with their children after the last row of men and in the final march.
 

"Al Hambura"

     This is performed by women and is particular to the Sharqiya. It is characterized by the women squatting, then moving forward in distinct jumps, resembling the leaping of a frog. The dancer rests the palm of her left hand on the floor, to steady himself. One of its traditions is for the two dancers to approach each other, both in the squatting position. One of them touches the other with her forehead, the two foreheads are so close together that they are as one body. Each of them presses on the head of the other with her forehead, moving as one. Young girls distinguish themselves in this dance because of their light, graceful movements.
The "Hambura" and its dance movements is accompanied by the rhythm of the two drums, the "Rahmaani" and the "Kaasir", which are beaten by two men who are also squatting. They move on the dance floor in separate movements.

"Bin 'Abadi"

     This is one of the women's songs in the Sharqiya. It is found particularly in the Wilayats of Sur, Wadi Bani Khalid and J'alan Bani Bu Hasan. Six special groups perform this type of song in the port of Sur, and each of them has one or more poets or poetesses who write the poetry of the songs. The rhythm of the "Bin 'Abadi is a quartrain. The first part is a heavy passage on the "Qurhaaf" or the "Kawus" or the "Na'aal".
      Then there follows a quiet period of three passages.
There are three types of "Bin 'Abaadi", identical in both the song and the rhythm bu differing in the lyrics. They are: "Bin 'Abadi 'Aaluh", "Bin 'Abadi ya Salam" and "Bin 'Abadi Daman". The singing begins with the expression "Yaudan Yaudan", then the singing of the lyrics follows. It is a song for amusement and for weddings. Previously, it was sung at the return of a ship from a long voyage.
In the Wilayat of J'alan Bani Bu Hasan it is known by the name "Al Sharah" and the Wilayats of Al Wafi, Wadi Bani Khalid know it as "Sharah Al Wadi".
 

"Al Tanbura"

This is an African song which , before the beginning of the 1970's, was a type of folk remedy set to music, singing it made them feel better. Later on, however, it became a song just for amusement. "Al Tanbura" is the name of an African musical instrument, of the same name originally used in performing this type of song.
An "Al Tanbura" is actually a harp, a Phoenician instrument, which is still played in Nubia. This song is also called "Al Nubiaan". The "Al Tanbura"has five strings on a circular box. Each of the strings is called a "Kheet" and for this reason it is generally known by the people who perform it as "Al Keet". The strings of the "Al Tanbura" are played with the rounded tip of a bulls horn. The "Al Tanbura" has a religious cannotation. Swahili and Arabic words Occur in it. Most of these songs deal with recollections of the African coast.
     They are ancient hereditary songs.
The "Kaasir" and the "Rahmaani" drums accompany the "Al Tanbura". However, indicating its African origin, the drums have a conical form, strengthened on the wider side by a covering of bulls hide. The singing is carried out by a solo
singer "Abu Al Tanbura", and a group of men and women take up the reply to him. The drum accompanies the singing. The solitary rhythmical movement is performed by a youth with a belt of cloth with many dried goats hooves and bells tied around his waist. This belt is called "Al Hazam Bilmanjur", which gives out a rhythmical sound like "Kharkharsh".
Spectators - both men and women - may participate in the dance if they wish.
 

"Um Bum"

This is a song for evening parties and for amusement. The singing is accompanied by dance movements which are performed by women in line. The rhythm of the song and dance in "Urn Bum" is composed of two halves. They are followed by a dividing period, then three passages. Alternatively, the three passages are followed by one dividing period, then come the former two `halves'. This rhythm is performed by a group of women singing and clapping accompanied by the"Kaasir" and "Rahmaani" drums. The two drummers are men. In the movements the women dance with bent knees in the passage that is divided by the two parts of the rhythm.
The "Urn Bum" only has this name in the Wilayats of the Sharqiya, whilst in the Wilayats of Al Qabil it is known as "Al Karnuta".
 

"Al Mazifina"

     This is performed by two groups standing opposite each other, each of them, in most cases, of young boys and girls. Each group is of two boys or two girls, or of two boys with a girl between them, or of two girls with a boy between them. Generally, this song has a melody which does not change.
      The dance movement is a jump, either with two feet or one. One of the two groups walks towards the other, whilst the latter group moves backwards. There is a short distance between them and this distance remains the same during the dance. When the groups reach the end of the dance floor the group that is singing the verse turns about. When the groups reverse direction the verse is taken up by the group that is now facing forwards.
The "Mazifina" is performed in a area, lined by spectators who do not participate. It is characterized by the rhythm of its dance movement and the creativity of the poetry of the song. It can also be performed without drums. It is one of the songs of the Beduin of the Sharqiya.

The "Qassaafiya"

     This is a "Razha" with a fast rhythm. When people meet for the "Razha" the proceedings begin with it. The youths of the tribe perform it in preparation for the "Razha" of the adults. The "Qassaafiya" is performed at the school where the youths study the origins of the art of "Razha" The rhythm is simple, either duos or trios.
     Its poetry has a short metre. Its purpose is light - descriptive or chaste love poetry or other interests of youth. Usually the "Qassaafiya" does not last long, until the square has emptied for the "Nazha" of the adults. In the verses of the "Qassafiya" the song begins by singing the word "Laal". It has a long central vowel which allows singing on the same level of the poetry which will be sung in the "Qassafiyah". For this reason it is sometimes known as the "Laal Al Qassafi", "Lal At 'Aud" or the "Razha At Kabir".
 

"Al 'Aazi"

     This is poetic recitation without any chanting or singing. It is performed by an individual outstanding poet or story teller. The poet of "AI 'Aazi" comes out from his group, grasping his sword and his rifle. As he walks slowly he recites poetry of glory and praise.
     He shakes his sword to show all those present at the meeting and this shaking makes the blade tremble. Behind the poet the group of men participate. They turn in the square between the two rows of "Razha", who gather to form a circle around the poet and his followers. They reply with a number of short cries in the traditional manner, like the short loud shouts of the word "Wasalamat", which in olden times was accompanied by the shooting of a bullet from a rifle.
      The participants still cock their rifles with a penetrating sound, which can be heard at the same time as these shouts which usually follow the first scanned verse which the poet recites. There is another shout "AI Mulak Lil Allah Yadoom" (The reign of God is everlasting) and the participants prolong the letter "Alif" in expression of the sublimity of the cry- and they repeat it again at the end of the poetic verse which the poet of "AI 'Aazi" recites.
There are three kinds of "Al 'Aazi" poetry. The first - the "AI Alifiya" where each verse begins with the letter "Alif" (A), from which the name is derived. The verses continue until the letter "Al Yay" (Z) Except for a number of the letters, satirical poetry is used in the "Alifiya". The length differs according to whether the poet can use all the letters
     The second type is the " Al 'Adadiya". Here the first three verses, at least, begin with a numerical formula. The poet says the first, then there is a poetic verse, then he says the second, another verse follows .... and so on. The length depends, here, on the ability of the poet and the length of his poetical repetoire.
The third kind is the "Al Mutlaqa". Here the poetry is free and not linked to an order of letters or numbers, rather its verses depend on the quality of the poet and his creativness. The "Qasida Al 'Aazi" begins, usually, with "In the name of God" and ends with a prayer and peace on the Prophet of God. One of the important aims of the "Al'Aazi" poetry, now, is to praise His Majesty Sultan Qaboos, and the merits of his era. There precedes the "Al 'Aazi" (or follows it) what is called the "Al Ta'iyuta" or "Al Ta'eeyeeta" which is about the glory of Sur, with men and women shouting the word "Sur". "Al M'aeet" (the shouter) shouts the name of the person who he wants to praise. Then he talks about his Wilayat and his country and its great Sultan, together with various historical glorious deeds. The participants in "Al Ta'iyuta" reply and with one resounding voice shout the word "Sur", "Al M'aeet" then repeats the names of those who he intends to praise or who they are proud of. The "Al Ta'eeyuta" ends with the saying "Al M'aeet" (the shouter) and the expression "Al Muslimeen Takbir".
 

"Al Taghrud"

     This song is sung on the back of camels or horses, either to encourage them or their riders. The "Taghrud Al Bush" is called the "Razha Al Bedu" or "Razfa Al Bedu". It is a group song with a fixed chant which does not change from place to place. It is characterized by a lengthening of the long vowels in a marvellous guided singing. It makes an audible picture of the movement of the mount.       
     The "Al Taghrud" is sometimes called"Shila Al Rukaab" (the song of the riders). It is also called ""Hambal Al Rukaab". In both cases there is only one singer, he is called "Museera Al Rijaal". Because of the musical character of the "Al Taghrud Al Bush" it is referred to as "Al Gheerud", "Al Ghaarud", Al Taghreera", Al Taghreed", "Al Ghuruda", "Al Ghurud" or "Al Ghaaruda". The origins of this song go back , long ago, men who performed it whilst mounted on camels going to battle or returning victorious from it. It was also performed for amusement at night, whilst the Beduin were sitting in their tents.
     As for the "Taghrud Al Khail" it is a song permeated by shouts to encourage the horse. It is a song of praise, with the words extolling the horses' merits. Usually the "Taghrud Al Khail" is performed by the riders, getting ready for racing. The words of "Taghrud Al Khail" are characterized by the theme of bravery and courage and helping the weak.
 

"Al Taariq"

     This is a Beduin song which is sung either on the back of a camel or sitting on the ground. Two singers perform it. One of them begins then the other takes over the poetry and the song at the end of the verse. He repeats his performance in exactly the same way as the performance of the first singer. The chant of the song does not change - in "Al Taariq" - from one poem to another, it is also almost the same from one singer to another and from one Wilayat to another. The song of "Al Taariq" deals with a number of aims of poetry and song. Most of them are love poetry or recollections or in praise of the she-camel and her merits. "Al Taariq" is performed during the slow walk of the camel and so the rhythm of the singing in it differs from the singing of the "Al Taghrud" which is performed during the quick pace of the camel.
The names of the "Al Taariq" differ between the areas of the Sultanate. In the Wilayat of Sur in the Sharqiya it is called "Al Tawareeq" which is pronounced "Al Tawareej".
 

The "Razha"

     This type is characterized by the sword and the poetic exchange. The name "Razha" indicates the dance of swords,with the man collapsing beneath the weight of the sword, he has to carry this weight during his high jumps in the air and land standing firmly on his feet, without trembling or falling. The tradition still exists of throwing the sword in the air and catching it again as it comes down. This catching is a kind of boasting among the men of the "Razha" The weight of the sword or the sharpness of the weapon is important. Long ago this was the way for the group to express the needs of the people of the Wilayat. It was also a way to announce war, gather troops, announce victory or mediation between the warring parties for a settlement between them. The men of the "Razha" gather together for amusement and to display their skill in swordsmanship and combat with swords and shields. The poets of the tribes vie with one another with their skill in love poetry, eulogies, riddles and conundrums. This is the literary picture of the combat with swords.
The "Razha" starts with the sound of the drums, so that the men gather together to work out their affair, a poet from every tribe extemporizes , explaining the event for which they have gathered. The forms of the "Razha" differ in the movements of the participants, the type and speed of the rhythm governing the movements, the poetic metres which form the singing of its verses, and the subject which the poet extemporizes on. The different kinds of "Razha" have names, each one indicating one of its attributes - either the poetry, or the movement, or its connection to a certain place. Of the best known of these is the "Razha Mashuba" which is love poetry or eulogies.
The "Razha Al Harbiyaat" is ware poetry, whether for or against raids for water, or for announcing victories, or settling a dispute between the warring parties.
The "Razha Al Hawaama". Here one of the rows remains fixed, and often the row is wide, while the other row turns a complete circle about the square, parallel, for a short time, with the fixed row. They continue round until they stop opposite the fixed row,which in turn then begins a similar circle.
The "Razha Al Khaalidiya" which is special to the Wilayat of Wadi Bani Khalid in the Sharqiya is sometimes called the "Qasaafiya", or the "Razha Al Shabaab"
The "Razha Al Naahiya" which changes the group of the "Hambal" to one display row, divided in the middle into two parts. Each of them stands opposite one another at the side (naahiya) of the square. When two tribes meet in the "Razha" each of them is accompanied by its special drums. These drums are often passed down from generation to generation
The "Razha" has two drums the "Kaasir" and the "Rahmaani". Each of them is beaten with a stick on both sides. To the beat of the drum, the side which is to begin starts the song, singing the text poetically and melodiously. The two drummers move between the two close parallel rows until the song ends. When the drums of one side fall silent, the drums of the other start with a new verse. Often this is a reply to the first verse. Then there follow poetic verses and singing, exchanging between the rows until the "Razha" achieves the aims for which it was convened.
 

The "Razha Al Kabira"

     "Kabir" (big) because it is the "Razha" of the adults, the fighters with swords. The poets of the adult "Razha" expostulate poetry in riddles and conundrums. Long ago, it was the "Razha" of war, peace and mediation between the warring parties. Now, it is the "Razha" of welcome and celebration and eulogy of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos and the glory of his blessed era. It has three slow rhythms, characterised by their solemnity, which is in keeping with the movements of the participants.
     The poet of one of the approaching rows dictates the text of the verse - poetically and harmoniously - after singing the word "Laal" in the same balanced rhythm of praise and poetic song. No sooner is the sound of the drum of one of the two sides (which has the first verse) heard, than the display of courage with sword and rifle begins. The fighters with swords have a tradition and rules which no one is allowed to break. The adults precede the young for their turn. There has to be equality in the skill of the game of swords, among the fighters, so that one sword is not sharper than the other.
      The aim of all the fighters is to hit the opponent on his left thumb, with which he holds his rifle, to defeat him. When the two sides fulfill the aims of their fight, they stop. However, if no one side is the clear winner then a third man enters between them, cutting the air between their swords with his sword, this immediately stops the battle. The rules in these situations are well-known. An old man or one of rank, or both, terminates the fight between the two sides, stopping them by cutting the air between their swords with his sword.