The Administrative System

His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said  

His Majesty the Sultan is the Head of State, its highest and final authority and the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. His person is inviolate, respect for him is obligatory and his command must be obeyed. He is the symbol of national unity, which he maintains and upholds.

Article 42 of the Basic Statute of the State defines His Majesty the Sultan’s functions, which include maintaining the country’s independence and territorial integrity, protecting its internal and external security, safeguarding its citizens’ rights and freedoms, upholding the rule of the law, directing general state policy, taking prompt measures to confront any dangers threatening the Sultanate’s security or national integrity or the security of its people, presiding over the Cabinet of Ministers or appointing a person to preside over it, presiding over the specialised councils or appointing persons to preside over them, appointing deputy prime ministers, ministers, undersecretaries, others of their rank and senior judges and relieving them of their positions, declaring states of emergency, general mobilisation and war and concluding peace in accordance with the provisions of the law, promulgating laws, ratifying treaties and international agreements, promulgating the General State Budget and waiver punishments or reduce their severity, as well as other functions. Rulings are issued and carried out in the name of His Majesty the Sultan.

The Cabinet of Ministers, Specialised Councils, Committees and Authorities

The Cabinet of Ministers assists His Majesty the Sultan in drawing up and implementing general state policy.

According to Article 44 of the Basic Statute of the State, the Cabinet is the body entrusted with the implementation of general state policy; more specifically, it "submits recommendations to the Sultan on economic, political, social, executive and administrative matters that are of concern to the government. Its responsibilities include proposing draft laws and decrees, looking after citizens’ interests, ensuring that citizens are provided with essential services, improving their economic, health and cultural standards, defining general economic, social and administrative development goals and policies, proposing the means and measures required for their implementation in such a way as to ensure good use is made of the available financial, economic and human resources, discussing development plans prepared by the competent authorities, submitting them to the Sultan for approval and following up their implementation, discussing ministries’ proposals on carrying out their functions within their own areas of competence and adopting appropriate recommendations and decisions on them, overseeing the administrative apparatus of state and monitoring the performance of its duties, liaising between government departments and units, and generally overseeing the implementation of laws, decrees, regulations, decisions, treaties, agreements and court rulings in such a manner as to ensure that they are complied with, in addition to any other responsibilities assigned to it by the Sultan or in accordance with the provisions of the law."

The Cabinet of Ministers has a Secretariat-General to assist it in carrying out its work and Sayyid Hamoud bin Faisal bin Said is its Secretary-General.

According to Article 53 of the Basic Law of the State, ‘members of the Cabinet of Ministers may not combine their ministerial posts with the chairmanship or membership of any public joint stock company’.

The Cabinet of Ministers is headed by His Majesty the Sultan and has 29 members. Following Royal Decree No. 85/97 and Royal Decree No. 10/2000, issued on 25/1/2000, which amend certain ministerial portfolios, its members are:-
 
His Highness Sayyid Thuwainy bin Shihab Al Said
-Personal Representative of His Majesty the Sultan
His Highness Sayyid Fahad bin Mahmoud Al Said
-Deputy Prime Minister for the Council of Ministers
His Highness Sayyid Faisal bin Ali Al Said
-Minister of National Heritage and Culture
His Excellency Sayyid Saif bin Hamad bin Saud
-Minister of the Diwan of the Royal Court
His Excellency General Ali bin Majid al-Ma'amari
-Minister of the Palace Office and Head of the Office
of the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces
His Excellency Sayyid Badr bin Saud bin Hareb
-Minister Responsible for Defence Affairs
His Excellency Sayyid Ali bin Hamoud al-Busaidi
-Minister of the Interior
His Excellency Yousuf bin Alawi bin Abdullah
-Minister Responsible for Foreign Affairs
His Excellency Shaikh Mohammed bin Abdullah bin Zaher al-Hinai
-Minister of Justice
His Excellency Ahmed Bin Abdulnabi Macki
-Minister of National Economy and Supervisor of the Ministry of Finance and Deputy Chairman
of the Financial Affairs and Energy Resources Council
His Excellency Yahya bin Mahfudh al-Mantheri
-Minister of Higher Education
His Excellency Hamed bin Mohammed al Rashdi
-Minister of Information
His Excellency Sayyid al-Mutasim bin Hamoud al-Busaidi
-Minister of State and Governor of Muscat
His Excellency Malik bin Sulaiman al-Ma'amari
-Minister of Transport and Communication
His Excellency Sheikh Mohammed bin Ali al-Qatabi
-Minister of State and Governor of Dhofar
His Excellency Dr Ali bin Mohammed bin Moosa
-Minister of Health
His Excellency Sheikh Amer bin Shuwain al-Hosni
-Minister of Social Affairs, Labour and Vocational Training
His Excellency Maqbool bin Ali bin Sultan
-Minister of Commerce and Industry
His Excellency Mohammed bin Ali bin Nasir al-Alawi
-Minister of Legal Affairs
His Excellency Sayyid Saud bin Ibrahim al-Busaidi
-Minister of Education
His Excellency Sheikh Abdulaziz bin Matar bin Salim al-Azizi
-Minister of the Civil Service
His Excellency Shaikh Abdullah bin Mohammed al-Salimi
-Minister of Awqaf and Religious Affairs
His Excellency Salim bin Hilal al Khalili
 -Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries
His Excellency Dr Mohammed bin Hamad bin Saif al-Romhi
-Minister of Oil and Gas
His Excellency Dr Khamis bin Mubarak bin Isa al-Alawi
-Minister of Regional Municipalities, Environment and Water Resources
His Excellency Sheikh Suhail bin Mustahil bin Salim Bait Shamas
-Minister of Housing, Electricity and Water

The Defence Council

His Majesty Sultan Qaboos issued Royal Decree No. 105/96 in December 1996 forming the eight-member Defence Council under his chairmanship. The Council, which meets when summoned by His Majesty the Sultan, examines issues related to the safety, security, well-being and defence of Oman. This is with regard to cases other than the one covered in Article Six of the Basic Statute of the State – i.e. the position of Sultan falling vacant, when the Defence Council meets with the force of the law under the chairmanship of its highest-ranking member, and with the attendance of at least two thirds of its members, to call a meeting of the Ruling Family Council to decide on the person to whom the succession should pass.

The Decree stipulates that, if the Family Council fails to agree on a choice of Sultan within the period specified by law, the Defence Council will confirm the person indicated by the Sultan in his message to the Family Council and take the necessary steps in this regard. The Defence Council will remain in session until the Sultan takes the oath of office stipulated in Article Seven of the Basic Statute of the State taken before a joint session of the Council of Oman and the Defence Council.

The Financial Affairs and Energy Resources Council  

His Majesty Sultan Qaboos heads the Financial Affairs and Energy Resources Council, which is responsible for drawing up the state’s fiscal policy and financial and monetary regulations. It also prepares the annual General State Budget, studies financial allocations for development projects, and examines domestic and foreign investment and investment funding and other savings, investment, fiscal and monetary matters.
 
The Council is also responsible for energy resources. It endeavours to develop them, increase their contribution to the national economy and improve the ways in which they are utilised. The Council meetings are chaired by His Majesty the Sultan or the Deputy Chairman.

The Supreme Judicial Council  

His Majesty Sultan Qaboos heads the Supreme Judicial Council, which was established under Royal Decree No. 93/99 issued on 21st November 1999. The Council’s members are the Minister of Justice (Deputy Chairman), the Inspector-General of Police and Customs, the President of the Supreme Court, the President of the Court of Administrative Justice, the Public Prosecutor, the longest-serving Vice-President of the Supreme Court, the Head of the Shariah Court Department at the Supreme Court, the Vice-President of the Court of Administrative Justice and the longest-serving Appeal Court President.
 
The Supreme Judicial Council is responsible for drawing up general judicial policy. It safeguards the independence of the judiciary and monitors its development. In pursuance of these aims, it is empowered to oversee the work of the courts and the Public Prosecutor’s Office, follow up the development of the courts, facilitate litigation and make pursuance easier for litigants, and consider candidates submitted by the competent authorities for judicial posts, whether by appointment or through promotion, in those cases in which the law stipulates that the post will be filled by Royal Decree. Its authority also extends to proposing draft laws on the administration of justice, considering any points concerning them that may be raised by the competent authorities and expressing such opinions on them as it sees fit, and expressing opinions on draft judicial co-operation agreements between the Sultanate and other states, in addition to any other matters which His Majesty the Sultan deems fit to raise so that it can study them and express its opinions on them.

His Majesty the Sultan exercises the Supreme Judicial Council’s powers and responsibilities until the judicial posts occupied by the Council members are filled. A co-ordinating office is established at the Diwan of Royal Court to review issues within the Council’s area of competence, prepare minutes of the sessions and notify the authorities concerned of the decisions taken and recommendations made, so that the necessary steps can be taken for their implementation.

The Supreme Committees and Specialised Councils

Article 56 of the Basic Statute of the State stipulate: “Specialised councils shall be established and their powers shall be defined. Their members shall be appointed by Royal Decree.” The state’s administrative apparatus of state includes a number of higher committees, specialised councils and public authorities, each of which is responsible for overseeing a specific sector and liaising with the competent authorities, including the ministries, in the public interest. Several ministers hold positions on these bodies, each with his own specific area of competence.

The Higher Committee for Conferences

The Higher Committee for Conferences is responsible for preparing, following up and liaising with the ministries concerning conferences attended by the Sultanate, particularly those involving the Gulf Co-operation Council states.
 
The Committee is chaired by His Highness Sayyid Fahad bin Mahmoud al Said, Deputy Prime Minister for the Council of Ministers. His Highness Sayyid As’ad bin Tariq is its Secretary-General. 

The Civil Service Council

The Civil Service Council draws up general policies on the Civil Service and considers decisions, laws and other measures aimed at boosting Omanisation and improving the efficiency of the state’s administrative apparatus.

The Supreme Committee for Town Planning

This Committee, which was established in 1985, draws up general town planning policies in the light of the country’s development plans. It is responsible for following up the implementation and development of approved planning programmes, devising criteria for valuing properties which have been compulsorily purchased for public utilities under the law, and removing any material or financial obstacles to the implementation of plans which have been approved.
 
The Committee is chaired by His Excellency Malik bin Suleiman al Ma’amari, Minister of Transport and Housing.

The Higher Education Council

The Higher Education Council was set up in September 1998 under Royal Decree No. 65/98. It is chaired by His Excellency Sayyid Saif bin Hamad bin Saud, Minister of the Diwan of Royal Court, and has 13 members: the Minister of Higher Education (Deputy Chairman), the Minister of National Economy, the Minister of Education and the Minister of Social Affairs, Labour and Vocational Training, the President of Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) and the Secretary-General of the Higher Education Council, as well as seven other members named by Royal Decree, who are intellectuals of academic standing or representatives of the private sector.

The Higher Education Council is responsible for drawing up general higher education, and scientific and academic research policies in the universities and higher institutes and endeavouring to ensure that they are tailored to meet the state’s needs and cultural, social, economic and scientific goals. It is also responsible for regulating student admissions to the universities and higher institutes, determining student numbers in co-ordination with the competent authorities, liaising between equivalent departments in the different higher education institutions, studying and proposing amendments to higher education rules and regulations in the light of developments in general state policies, reviewing draft laws on higher education, studying higher education matters referred to it by His Majesty the Sultan or the Cabinet of Ministers and expressing opinions on them, considering higher education-related questions referred to it by the universities and competent government authorities, preparing annual reports on the state of higher education for the Cabinet of Ministers, and putting forward appropriate recommendations.  

The Economic Co-ordination Council  

The Economic Co-ordination Council is a government council established under Royal Decree No. 94/99, issued on 22nd November 1999. It is headed by His Excellency Sayyid Saif bin Hamad bin Saud, Minister of the Diwan of Royal Court.
 
The Council is responsible for studying all economic issues, including any obstacles to economic development, and proposing ways of stimulating the national economy and helping to overcome problems faced by the private sector. It also represents the government at joint meetings with the Businessmen’s Council and takes on other tasks assigned to it by His Majesty the Sultan.
 
The Council has a Secretariat-General at the Ministry of National Economy, which reviews and studies topics within the Council’s area of competence and collects data and statistics.  

Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) Council  

The Sultan Qaboos University charter was promulgated by Royal Decree No. 44/99 issued in February 1999 and the structure was approved by Royal Decree No. 15/99 issued in March 1999.
 
The SQU Council is responsible for maintaining and improving university academic standards, as well as for ensuring maximum co-ordination between SQU graduate numbers and the National Development Plan’s graduate needs.
 
The SQU Council is headed by His Excellency Mohammed bin al Zubair, Advisor to His Majesty Sultan Qaboos for Economic Planning Affairs and President of SQU.  

Tender Board  

The Tender Board was established by Royal Decree in 1973 to ensure the fair and equitable allocation of contracts. The Board is assisted by an Executive Secretariat which forms the active link between the Board and the various Government authorities that issue tenders via the Board.
 
The Board, which usually meets fortnightly, is responsible for all Government tenders with the exception of contracts and projects related to Defence and Security. Tenders may involve assignments, materials purchase or project implementation. In 1999, the Board met 24 times and accepted 162 tenders with a total value of nearly RO429 million, compared with 135 tenders worth RO231 million in 1998. The Tender Board Negotiation Committee convened 30 meetings during the year.
 
In 1999, a total of 531 commercial companies, consulting firms and contractors in several different categories were registered with the Board. In April 1999, the Board introduced a new procedure at its meetings whereby representatives of the companies submitting tenders were invited to be present to witness the opening of the envelopes containing the bids.
 
In February 2000, the Tender Board awarded contracts worth over RO126 million. The two major awards were for the gas pipelines to Sohar, nearly RO48 million and Salalah just under RO70 million. They are the largest contracts awarded by the Tender Board in recent years.  

The State Financial Audit  

The State Financial Audit was established under Royal Decree No. 95/99, issued in November 1999, as a financially and administratively independent entity to replace the Secretariat-General of the State Financial Audit.
 
It is headed by His Excellency Sayyid Abdullah bin Hamad bin Saif al Busaidi, who exercises the ministerial powers defined in the State Finance Law.

The Omanisation Follow-up and Monitoring Committee

The Omanisation Follow-up and Monitoring Committee, which comes under the Diwan of the Royal Court, was set up by Royal Decree No. 95/97. It is responsible for following up and monitoring plans and programmes to Omanise jobs in the public and private sectors. In this connection, its powers include helping to determine the national economy’s manpower needs, preparing investment and recruitment plans for the implementation of Omanisation policies in conjunction with the other competent authorities, and preparing progress reports on Omanisation in the public and private sectors.

The Committee is chaired by His Excellency Abdul Alim bin Mustahail Rakhyut. Seven of its twelve members represent the government sector, while the remaining five represent the private sector. It is currently attempting to create a complete and accurate data base on the labour force in Oman, which will include information about Omanisation and ways of promoting it.

The Committee submits its reports directly to His Majesty the Sultan via the Minister of the Diwan of Royal Court.

Businessmen’s Council

The Businessmen’s Council, established under Diwani Decision No. 3/99 on 22nd November 1999, reflects the importance attached by His Majesty Sultan Qaboos to the private sector’s role in the national economy. It currently has 16 members, including one woman member; this number may be increased by a Diwani Decision.
 
The Council has chosen Shaikh Yaqoub bin Hamad al Harthy to be its President.
 
The Council’s function is to liaise between the government and the private sector on all matters related to economic growth, including the development of trade, industry, tourism and investment. It suggests ways of encouraging investment, creating wider investment opportunities, developing Omani manpower and involving more citizens in economic activities. Where appropriate, it also proposes amendments to laws governing matters within its area of competence and expresses opinions on draft laws referred to it by the government.
 
The Businessmen’s Council holds regular meetings every two months. In addition, its President has the right to convene it whenever necessary. In order to be valid, its meetings must be attended by a quorum of two thirds of its members. Its recommendations and proposals, which must be approved by at least three quarters of the members present, are referred to the Ministry of National Economy.
 
Membership of the Council is for a period of three years and is renewable for a further term or terms.

The Council of Oman

On the 27th December 1997, His Majesty presided over the opening of the Council of Oman, which had been established by Royal Decree 86/97 in accordance with the Basic Statute of the State. The Council of Oman consists of two chambers:-

The Council of State (Majlis al-Dawla)  

On the 4th January 1998, the Council of State held its first plenary meeting after being inaugurated by His Majesty. The meeting was opened by the President. The members appointed by His Majesty were then sworn in and a vice-president elected. The Office of the Council of State will meet fortnightly and committees have been formed to examine legal, social and economic issues. Plenary sessions of the Council are to be held four times this year. Members of the Council must be Omani citizens of at least 40 years of age with suitable experience stemming from a government, university, military or business career. Members of the Council may not hold any other civil service post nor are they eligible for membership of the Majlis al-Shura. Their membership is for a three year term and may be renewed. His Majesty has stressed that of the 41 members of the Council at least four should be women. The Council will offer seasoned advice to His Majesty and work closely in co-ordination with the Majlis al-Shura, thus strengthening Oman's consultative process and widening participation in the public life of the Sultanate. The Council of State does not have the same functions as the Consultative Council.  The Government and the Council of State define the strategy for the Council of Oman and follow up its implementation. It then receives studies and recommendations from the Consultative Council or from the Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry in the case of the private sector. An important aspect of the Council’s work is to arrange training courses and workshops on the Basic Law of the State and the development of a modern legal system.

The Consultative Council (Majlis al-Shura)

In November 1990, His Majesty Sultan Qaboos announced that a new Consultative Council (Majlis al-Shura) would replace the State Consultative Council (Majlis al-Istishari lil-dawla) which had been formed in 1981. In December 1991, the first Consultative Council was inaugurated with 59 members representing each of the Wilayats.

The State Consultative Council had been a nominated body, but in accordance with the steps being taken towards further political liberalisation, each member of the present Consultative Council has been elected, with the exception of the President who is appointed by Royal Decree. The two vice-presidents are elected by the membership of the Council in a secret ballot.
 
The term of membership is three years which may be extended. Candidates must have Omani nationality, be not less than 30 years of age, have a good reputation and be reasonably well educated. Once a candidate is selected for membership he or she must give up any other official post.
Elections to the Council were held in October 1997.

The third term of the Council runs from 1st December 1997 to 30th November 2000. The previous elections in July 1994 resulted in the appointment of two women for the first time. Although more women put themselves forward as candidates in the 1997 elections under the extension of the franchise for women, only two were successful in a popular vote. In 1994, the number of members in the Council was increased to 80 based on the results of the first National Census held in December 1993.
 
Due to population increases, the number of members has now been raised to 82. Wilayats with a population of more than 30,000 people formerly elected four candidates from whom two were selected to serve as members of the Council. In May 2000, a Royal Decree (25/2000) amended the election procedure. In the November 2000 election, there was no selection procedure for the more populated wilayats: the two candidates with the largest number of votes were automatically elected. Wilayats with less than 30,000 will elect one candidate only. In the 1997 elections, there were 736 candidates including 27 women.
 
The franchise of the Council was widened at the elections in November 2000. In April 2000, the Ministry of the Interior announced the procedure for nominations to membership of the Council for its fourth term 2001-2003. The numbers of those eligible to contest the elections have been increased by 25% to 175,000. The participation of women has been increased to 30% of the total number of candidates. The Council will continue to evolve along democratic lines in accordance with the traditions and principles of Islam. These are enshrined in the verses of the Holy Qur'an which contains a chapter entitled Surat al-Shura.
 
The Council has been instrumental in helping to make studies and recommendations for Oman's economic and financial policies. In the second session of the Council in March, one of the subjects for debate was the introduction of private universities in which His Majesty has taken a keen interest.

The Council has also tackled a wide range of issues ranging from juvenile delinquency and unemployment to the system of Zakat (A Pillar of Islam requiring a Muslim to give alms). Education and health issues occupy much of the Council’s time and energy.

Much of the Council’s work is done in committee. There are now seven permanent committees – legal, economic, health and social affairs, education and culture, services and development of local communities, environment and human resources and follow up and implementation. Meetings of the committees are held in camera and members are not at liberty to divulge any of the proceedings of the Council which are kept confidential. However, under the constitution of the Council, public service ministers are expected to submit reports and answer questions on their ministries’ performance, plans and achievements. These are made known to the public through the media. One of the principal duties of the Council is to review all social and economic draft laws, prepared by the Ministries before their enactment and to ask searching questions of Ministers invited to attend plenary sessions of the Council.
 
The television appearances of Ministers to answer questions have been very well received by the public. In the latter half of 1999, it was the turn of the Ministers of Electricity and Water, and Commerce and Industry to appear before the Council. The Council voiced concern about power failures during the summer months and price increases caused by the hike in customs tariffs at the beginning of the year which were subsequently reduced to their previous level on the orders of His Majesty.

In January 2000, the Minister of Information and the Minister of Regional Municipalities and Environment appeared before the Council to deliver comprehensive statements on the plans and projects of their Ministries. In March it was the turn of the Ministers of Education and Higher Education to put forward their proposals for the Sixth Five-Year Plan. They were followed by the Minister of Social Affairs, Labour and Vocational Training, who highlighted the progress made in human resources development through the training programmes implemented during the current Five-Year Plan.

With the opening of the third session of the Council in May, the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries was invited to address the members. In this session, the Council also received annual reports from the Ministers of Transport and Housing, Communications and the National Economy. In April 2000, a co-ordination meeting was held between the Council of Ministers and the Majlis Al-Shura.

Foreign delegations are invited to see the work of the Council and discuss its procedures. In 1999, several visited Oman, among them one from China. In February 2000, a delegation from Austria was received. The Council also sends delegations to neighbouring countries thus strengthening the links between parliamentary organisations. In May 2000, a delegation of Council members went to Jordan as observers at the 103rd Conference of the International Parliamentary Union.

Interior  

Before 1970, the traditional form of Government in the Interior of the Sultanate consisted of the tribal Shaikhs, who were responsible to the Sultan’s representative or Wali of the region or wilayat in which their community lived. The Walis were responsible to the Minister of the Interior who represented the Sultan in Muscat.
 
Today, the basis of this system has been maintained, but the Walis now have to work in a very different way to their predecessors. There are three Governorates of Muscat, Dhofar and Musandam, where 15 Walis report to the appropriate Governor. The Governors of Muscat and Dhofar are also Ministers of State. There are 44 Walis in other parts of the Sultanate, who are responsible to the Ministry of the Interior. The Walis and their offices form an important link between past tradition and modern Government administration. The Wali has the task of co-ordinating Government activities in his area. Several Ministries now have decentralised offices and regional directors with whom the Wali will be in contact. At one time, the Wali would have had a small band of armed men called ‘askars’ to keep law and order. Now in every large town there is a Police Station and a Court of Law. Applications for passports are scrutinised in the Wali’s office before being processed by the Royal Oman Police.
 
The Wali acts as a mediator in disputes and as a channel of communication. He will investigate cases of social hardship and chair local committees on matters to do with land registration and other development matters. He also has an important role in the organisation of elections to the Majlis al-Shura.
 
In each of the 59 wilayats, lists of voters are prepared by the Wali, who ensures that citizens comply with certain conditions:-
 
- The voter (male or female) must be an Omani by birth, officially certified to be 21 years of age or over.
 
- He or she must fall within one of the following categories:-
 
- Shaikh, local dignitary, man of learning, graduate or businessman of standing in his/her wilayat.
 
An Omani citizen is denied the right to vote if he or she:-
 
- is an undischarged bankrupt
- is mentally ill
- has been convicted of a felony
- is a member of the security forces

At one time, the Wali lived and worked in the local fort, which was often in a state of disrepair and lacking in modern amenities and equipment. The Ministry has built new offices and accommodation for the Walis, who now have modern communications instead of ancient wireless sets. However, one ancient democratic institution has been reintroduced, since the restoration of the traditional forts by the Ministry of National Heritage. This is the ‘Barzah’ when the Wali holds monthly audiences to discuss local problems with members of the public. These gatherings have proved extremely popular as well as being a useful channel of communication.